Currently, various theories and research locate the ancestral homeland of the Slavs in specific regions, such as the middle Danube, the lands between the Oder and Vistula rivers, the territories between the Vistula, Dnieper, and Oder rivers, and the Pripyat marshlands.

The Great Migrations and the Bulgarian State

During the period of the great migrations (3rd-7th centuries AD), these Slavic tribes actively came into contact with other nomadic peoples. The Hunnic Empire, led by Attila, occupied all the lands between the Volga and the Danube, reaching as far as the borders of France. The death of Attila in 453 triggered the disintegration of this empire, and with no alternative, the Huns moved eastward.

Around the mid-6th century, the Avar Khaganate emerged, establishing its supremacy over various nomadic tribes inhabiting the southern steppes. This union included Turkic-speaking tribes, such as the Avars, Ugric-speaking tribes, and Mongolic tribes. The Avar Khaganate subdued the Bulgars and Turks from the regions of Azov and the Caspian and advanced toward the Danube. In the early 7th century, they also subdued the Dulebes tribes in the Carpathian region, later attempting to expand into Byzantium. After being defeated by the Byzantines in 626, the khaganate disintegrated.

Around the mid-7th century, the Bulgarian state was formed in the southern steppes. A series of disputes within the Bulgarian elite led part of this people, led by Asparukh, to migrate to the Danube, where they founded the Bulgarian state in 681. Another part of the Bulgars, who spoke a Turkic language, led by Batbayán, founded the Volga Bulgaria in the middle Volga and lower Kama regions.

Also, in the mid-7th century, the Turkic-speaking Khazars founded an independent khanate covering the territories of present-day Dagestan, forming the Khazar Khanate in the northern Caucasus, the lower Volga region, the northern Black Sea, and parts of Crimea. This khanate existed until the mid-10th century.

The Eastern Slavs

During the 7th century, the Slavic world was divided into three groups: the southern Slavs, the western Slavs, and the eastern Slavs. The Eastern Slavs occupied territories in Eastern Europe, covering an area extending from Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega in the north to the middle basin of the Dnieper River and the mouths of the Prut, Dniester, and Southern Bug rivers in the south; from the slopes of the Carpathians in the west to the confluence of the Volga with the Oka and the upper Don in the east.

The collection of chronicles from the ancient Russian state, called the Primary Chronicle or Nestor’s Chronicle, provides a faithful account of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs. Considered a masterpiece of literature, it is believed to have been written by a monk named Nestor at the Kiev Pechersk Lavra (Monastery of the Caves) in the early 12th century.

In the monk’s chronicles, the origins of the ancient Russian state and its genesis are examined. Nestor places the history of the Eastern Slavs within the broader historical context and explains that, from the 7th century onward, due to the aggression of nomadic tribes, the Eastern Slavs intensified their migrations to new territories. This process, along with economic development, strengthened the bonds between tribes, a crucial factor in the formation of tribal alliances. The formation of tribal unions among the Eastern Slavs paved the way for the disintegration of the tribal system.

The names adopted by most tribal unions were not associated with their origins but with the areas where they settled. For example, in the middle course of the Dnieper River, in the fields (polia in Russian), lived the Polians; in the Pripyat River basin, where there were forests and swampy zones, lived the Drevlians (from drevo, ‘tree’, or derevo, ‘wood’) and the Dregoviches (from dirigov, ‘swamp’).

In the upper reaches of the Dnieper, the Radimiches settled, while the Kriviches occupied the regions of the Dvina and Dnieper rivers, and the Polochans inhabited the middle course of the Dvina and the confluence of the Palata River. The Ilmen Slavs or Slovenes lived around Lake Ilmen, and the Vyatichi settled in the Oka River basin.

The information presented in the Primary Chronicle about the resettlement of the Eastern Slavs has been confirmed by numerous archaeological discoveries, including ornamental objects, particularly the temporal rings typical of each tribal union.

The Finno-Baltic tribes inhabited territories adjacent to the Slavic tribal unions, which placed them under constant threat. This Slavic intimidation is mentioned in the Primary Chronicle. In addition to the Baltic and Finnish peoples, the Rus people were also subject to this pressure.

The contradictions between written sources and archaeological evidence continue to generate debates among archaeologists and historians.

The Ethnonym “Rus”

Some researchers believe that the name “Rus” originates from the Slavic tribal union established along the Ros River, a tributary of the Dnieper, and that this ethnonym, later spread across the steppes, eventually became a general term for all Slavs.

Other scholars argue that the ethnonym “Rus” has a Nordic origin, derived from the Finnish word ruotsi (‘rowers’). According to this theory, the term initially referred to the Varangians and Normans from Denmark and Norway and later came to designate the squadron of the Varangian prince Oleg.

The name of this squadron eventually became the name of the entire state, Kievan Rus, which was formed in the lands of the Eastern Slavs. Some historians believe that the ethnonym “Rus” originated from the Slavs of the southern Baltic coast and the island of Rügen (Rugia).

Based on the analysis of written sources and, most importantly, archaeological evidence, historian V.V. Sedov proposed the existence of the Rus Khaganate, which would have occupied the lands between the Don and Dnieper rivers. According to this theory, its origin dates back to the union of agricultural peoples formed by the Scythians and Sarmatians. Thus, “Rus” was originally a well-known non-Slavic ethnonym.

The Belief System of the Eastern Slavs

Due to their complete dependence on natural forces, these peoples practiced paganism between the 4th and 9th centuries. In this belief system, the Eastern Slavs worshiped a vast pantheon of deities.

The origin of paganism dates back to antiquity and underwent constant evolution, resulting in the multiplicity of gods in Eastern Slavic mythology. The god Yarilo embodied spring, while Kupala represented the sun at the summer solstice. Veles was the god of shepherds and was also associated with the earth, forests, waters, cattle, and fertility.

The Slavic mythological world consisted of benevolent deities and malevolent spirits, locked in eternal conflict. Among the malevolent spirits were demons, vampires, and werewolves.

To protect themselves from these entities, the Slavs resorted to various spells, amulets, and talismans. On the other hand, benevolent spirits fought against evil forces, protecting life, peace, and human activities.

Agriculture

The fact that Slavic pagan festivities were closely linked to agriculture demonstrates that these peoples lived primarily an agrarian life. Their main crops included cereals such as rye, wheat, barley, and millet, as well as vegetables like turnips, beets, radishes, and cabbage. In addition to farming, they also engaged in livestock raising, hunting, fishing, and beekeeping.

Between the 7th and 8th centuries, the plow-based system gradually replaced the slash-and-burn method.

Both in the south and north, iron processing techniques improved, leading to significant technological advancements in agricultural tools. As a result, agriculture became the main economic activity of the Eastern Slavs.

In this post, we present five surprising historical facts about Ancient Egypt—each revealing nuances that go far beyond what is typically taught in school history books. You will discover, for example, that the construction of the pyramids was not based solely on slave labor, as is often believed. You will also learn how Egyptian women could attain positions of power—a rarity in most ancient societies. We will explore the sophisticated system of hieroglyphic writing and the decisive role of the Rosetta Stone in unlocking its secrets, as well as examine the intricate mummification practices and the deep symbolism behind the afterlife. Finally, we will highlight Egypt’s impressive achievements in mathematics, engineering, and medicine, which attest to the ingenuity of this millennial people.

If you are interested in history, archaeology, or simply love unraveling the secrets of great civilizations, this post will broaden your view of Ancient Egypt. Prepare to embark on a journey into the past and discover five fascinating facts that enrich the way we see this extraordinary culture!

1. Pyramids: More Than Slave Labor

When we think of pyramids, it’s common to imagine legions of slaves laboring under harsh conditions to erect monuments like the Great Pyramid of Giza. However, recent archaeological evidence suggests that these monumental structures were built by specialized teams of workers who received payment, had nearby housing at the worksite, and were even provided with regular rations of food and beer. Many of these individuals were likely farmers recruited during periods when agricultural work was lighter, giving them a supplementary income while preventing idleness.

Inscriptions found in tombs and workers’ settlements indicate that these builders enjoyed a certain level of prestige, and some were even honored in smaller monuments. While slaves were indeed used in Ancient Egypt, the notion that the pyramids were constructed solely by slave labor has been significantly reconsidered. The meticulous organization—with experts in engineering, surveying, and logistics—was crucial to erecting these enormous monuments. Their planning and execution continue to inspire architects and engineers for generations.

2. Music and Its Fundamental Role

Music occupied a central place in Egyptian culture, permeating religious festivals, funerary rites, and even military activities. Depictions in tomb paintings and reliefs show musicians playing harps, lyres, flutes, and sistrums (a type of rattle), highlighting the variety of sounds and rhythms appreciated by the Egyptian people. For the Egyptians, music was not merely a form of entertainment—it also played a spiritual role. Specific melodies and chants were associated with particular deities, and it was believed that sound could facilitate communication with the gods, promote healing, and ensure a bountiful harvest.

Beyond its sacred use, music had practical and social functions as well. At banquets and royal celebrations, choirs and instrumentalists would enliven the atmosphere, showcasing status and refinement. During coronation ceremonies or funeral processions, music helped guide the rituals, marking important transitions in both the political and spiritual lives of the kingdom. In this way, music was an essential element of cultural cohesion and a powerful means of artistic and religious expression in one of the most enigmatic and advanced civilizations of antiquity.

3. Women in Positions of Power

In many ancient societies, women played limited social roles; however, in Ancient Egypt, women enjoyed rights and freedoms that were remarkable compared to those in other contemporary cultures. They could own property, conduct business, and even seek divorce—rights that were rare elsewhere at the time. Moreover, some women rose to the very top of the political hierarchy. For instance, the pharaoh Hatshepsut (circa 1479–1458 BCE) is celebrated for a reign marked by great economic and cultural prosperity.

Hatshepsut was not the only influential female ruler in Egyptian history. Figures such as Nefertiti, the wife of Pharaoh Akhenaten, also wielded significant religious and political influence during the Amarna period. And, of course, Cleopatra VII is renowned for her intelligence and diplomatic skills. These powerful female figures demonstrate that, in Egypt, authority was not exclusively a male domain—a reality that still surprises when compared to other ancient civilizations.

4. Perfumes and Cosmetics Were Indispensable

In Ancient Egypt, personal care and appearance went far beyond mere aesthetics—they carried profound religious and social significance. Perfumes and cosmetics were not just accessories but essential components of daily life for both men and women, serving multiple purposes.

Egyptians produced elaborate fragrances from flowers, resins, essential oils, and spices, which were used to scent the body, clothing, and even living spaces. It was believed that these aromas had protective and healing properties, capable of attracting the favor of the gods and warding off negative energies. This connection between scent and spirituality was evident in various religious and funerary rituals, where incense burning and perfume application symbolized purification and spiritual renewal.

Besides their ritual use, cosmetics also served practical and aesthetic functions. Makeup, especially that which emphasized the eyes, was applied using pigments derived from minerals and plants. The use of kohl—a type of eyeliner—was not solely for beautification; studies suggest that its ingredients had antimicrobial properties, helping to protect the eyes from the intense sun and potential infections. Thus, cosmetics in Ancient Egypt combined protection with the desire to enhance one’s appearance.

The production of these products required advanced knowledge of botany and chemistry, showcasing the Egyptians’ sophisticated manipulation of natural resources. The widespread use of perfumes and cosmetics reflects a culture that valued both hygiene and well-being, as well as personal expression and spirituality—demonstrating the deep connection between the material and the spiritual in everyday Egyptian life.

5. Death, Mummification, and the Afterlife

One of the most famous aspects of Ancient Egypt is its practice of mummification. The embalming process, which could take over 70 days, was based on the belief that preserving the body was essential for the soul to recognize its “vessel” in the afterlife. As a result, the tombs of pharaohs and nobles were filled with personal belongings, food, and even small statues known as ushabtis, which were thought to serve as servants in the next world.

The mummification process involved several stages: the removal of internal organs (which were stored in canopic jars), drying out the body with natron (a type of salt), and finally wrapping the corpse in linen bandages soaked in aromatic resins. This sophisticated technique was not reserved solely for royalty; people of different social classes could also be mummified, provided they had the necessary resources.

The obsession with the afterlife went beyond mummification. Texts such as the “Book of the Dead” guided the deceased on their journey, offering spells and instructions to overcome obstacles and ensure a peaceful eternal life. This deep spirituality—which placed immense value on continuity after death—shaped Egyptian art, architecture, and culture in enduring ways.

Ancient Egypt continues to captivate researchers and enthusiasts around the world. By delving into these seven fascinating topics—from pyramid construction and female empowerment to hieroglyphs, mummification, advanced sciences, the vital role of music, and the indispensability of perfumes and cosmetics—we gain a deeper understanding of a civilization that was as advanced as it was enigmatic.

These insights reveal how Egyptian society integrated social organization, technological innovation, religious belief, and artistic expression. The pyramids, for example, were not merely monuments to human achievement; they were built through a highly organized system that challenged long-held assumptions about labor and social structure. Similarly, the roles of women, the deciphering of hieroglyphs via the Rosetta Stone, the intricate practices surrounding death and the afterlife, and the sophisticated advances in mathematics, engineering, and medicine all highlight Egypt’s lasting influence on subsequent cultures.

Ultimately, the legacy of Ancient Egypt is not confined to its monumental architecture or elaborate rituals—it is also found in the daily practices, the art, and the scientific innovations that continue to inspire modern society. As we study Egypt, we uncover not only the mysteries of a long-gone civilization but also a foundation that has shaped what we consider essential in our contemporary world.

Considering an empire as extensive as Rome raises inevitable questions: how did a single power center on the Italian peninsula manage to govern provinces on three continents for so many centuries? Which innovations enabled entire cities to thrive in relative comfort and safety? And how did entertainment, religion, and politics merge in the everyday life of the Romans?

In this text, we present five remarkable facts that shed light on life in Ancient Rome. These topics, sometimes only briefly mentioned in history books, deserve closer attention to fully understand their social, technological, and cultural implications. We will cover: (1) the significance of Roman baths, not only as a hygiene practice but also as centers for political and social interaction; (2) the vast network of roads that enabled military expansion and cultural exchange; (3) the advanced sanitation system, exemplified by the Cloaca Maxima; (4) the ultra-durable concrete that still intrigues modern researchers; and (5) the world of gladiators, which went far beyond mere bloody spectacles.

Each of these subjects reveals surprising aspects of how the Romans built their world—and, by extension, shaped ours. Their ability to conceptualize and construct engineering feats that defied time, their focus on cleanliness and urban health, the political use of entertainment, and the creation of road networks connecting distant regions remain sources of fascination and inspiration.

Without further ado, I invite you to embark on this historical journey through Ancient Rome and discover some of the reasons why this civilization continues to be studied, admired, and often romanticized. By the end, you’ll see that each of these curiosities forms a fundamental piece of the puzzle for understanding the grandeur—and also the contradictions—of the Roman Empire.

1. Roman Baths: Hygiene, Leisure, and Politics

The famous Roman baths, known as thermae, went far beyond mere places of hygiene. Generally, they were large complexes that could include heated pools, rooms at different temperatures, exercise areas, libraries, and even gardens. More than just stone structures, these baths reflected Roman values and their distinctive lifestyle.

The bathing ritual involved moving through a sequence of rooms: first, visitors would leave their belongings in the apodyterium, or dressing room. Next came the tepidarium (warm room), where the body gradually adjusted to the heat. This was followed by the caldarium, the hottest room, which promoted sweating and made cleaning the skin easier. Finally, one would go to the frigidarium, where cold water was used to close the pores and refresh the bather. This progression of temperatures improved blood circulation and helped relax tense muscles.

Yet bathing was not merely a personal care activity. Many politicians and influential figures frequented the baths to converse, negotiate deals, and even casually campaign. These sites thus became true social hubs, where individuals from different social classes interacted more openly. Often funded by emperors or politicians seeking popularity, large bath complexes also symbolized the prestige of those who sponsored them.

Building these baths demanded considerable engineering know-how. The heating of rooms used a system called hypocaustum, allowing hot air to circulate beneath the floor and inside the walls. This setup relied on external furnaces, ensuring a constant temperature throughout the various rooms. Additionally, the water used in the baths arrived through aqueducts—another Roman engineering marvel—that carried fresh water from mountain springs to urban centers.

For many historians, Roman baths represented not only personal hygiene but also the elite’s commitment to keeping the population satisfied. Although we can’t directly compare their notions of “well-being” with those of today, it’s clear that the baths reinforced a sense of community and civic pride among Rome’s inhabitants. In short, when we think of Roman baths, we should go beyond cleanliness: these were spaces of social interaction, health, and politics—crucial for the cohesion of an ancient metropolis.

2. Roads That United an Empire

One of the main strengths of Ancient Rome lay in its extensive road network, stretching thousands of miles and linking cities, ports, and military fortresses. Without these routes, administering such remote territories would have been almost impossible. Built with precision, Roman roads offered durability and relatively fast travel—vital for both military and commercial purposes.

Construction began with determining the most direct possible route between two points, minimizing unnecessary detours. Then, workers dug a trench that was filled with layers of gravel and large stones, topped by a final layer of well-fitted stone slabs. This design prevented flooding and erosion, allowing the road to remain usable year-round. Some roads were so well-built that even centuries later, they remain visible or serve as foundations for modern highways.

The economic impact of these roads was tremendous. Goods like grain, olive oil, wine, and minerals could be transported between different regions with unprecedented speed for that era. This created a unified market throughout the empire, allowing surplus-producing regions to supply areas in need. This mobility also boosted cultural exchanges, spreading ideas, customs, and even religions—Christianity, for example, expanded more easily thanks to the road network.

We can’t ignore the military role of Roman roads, either. In the event of internal revolts or external threats, legions could deploy quickly to any part of the empire. Hence, the durability of Roman power also relied on this infrastructure, which enabled fast responses to conflicts. Near the frontiers, roads often ran alongside fortresses and watchtowers, reinforcing territorial control.

Because of their durability and scale, Roman roads represent the practical, organized mindset of Roman culture. In an ancient world full of geographic obstacles, connecting diverse regions was a colossal challenge. Rome’s solution had enormous value for imperial cohesion, and over the centuries, many societies inherited and adapted this legacy, keeping trade routes active and advancing the idea that roads are essential for social and economic development.

3. Sanitation Systems and the Cloaca Maxima

The Cloaca Maxima, one of the oldest sewage systems in the world, illustrates Rome’s emphasis on cleanliness and public health. Located in the city of Rome, this structure was originally designed to drain marshy land and carry away refuse, funneling it into the Tiber River. Its construction dates back to the early period of Roman civilization, possibly during the time of the kings in the 6th century BCE.

Part of its success lay in the design of its canals, which were wide enough to ensure a continuous flow of water. Moreover, the Romans didn’t hesitate to use public funds to expand and maintain the sewer network, knowing that neglecting sanitation would lead to foul odors, disease, and discontent among the densely populated areas of the city. Rome, which reached more than a million inhabitants at its peak, greatly relied on effective waste disposal to avoid epidemics.

Beyond Rome itself, other cities built similar structures, albeit on smaller scales. Disseminating this knowledge helped many urban areas of the empire become relatively clean and organized, especially when compared to other ancient civilizations. This approach was linked to a sense of civility that distinguished “Roman cities” from “barbarian” territories that lacked this kind of infrastructure.

It’s also vital to note that Roman sanitation went beyond sewage systems. They prioritized the supply of clean water by building monumental aqueducts that carried fresh water from the mountains to urban centers. In this context, the Cloaca Maxima and other sewers were part of a broader engineering effort that included public baths, fountains, and water distribution systems. All of this helped maintain a minimal standard of hygiene, reducing the risk of contamination.

Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, many of these sanitation systems were abandoned or ceased to function effectively, causing a decline in the sanitary conditions of European cities throughout the Middle Ages. Only centuries later, with new techniques and the reemergence of larger cities, the importance of sanitation was once again recognized as a priority. This highlights how the Romans were pioneers in understanding that caring for urban infrastructure is vital for the longevity of any large population center.

4. Ultra-Durable Concrete: The Secret of Pozzolana

One of the great enigmas of Roman engineering is the astonishing resilience of their constructions, many of which remain standing nearly two thousand years later. The secret lies in Roman concrete, produced by mixing pozzolana—a volcanic ash rich in compounds that, in contact with water, form highly durable crystalline structures.

Iconic structures like the Pantheon and several aqueducts showcase the quality of Roman concrete. The Pantheon’s dome, for instance, is still the world’s largest unreinforced concrete dome. Built in the 2nd century CE, it remains structurally intact, defying the passage of time. Pozzolana allowed the concrete to form robust chemical bonds, enhancing its durability in various climates and even in saltwater—ideal for harbors and docks.

Additionally, Roman concrete afforded greater design flexibility. Because it could be poured into wooden molds, architects were free to create arches and vaulted ceilings of various shapes. It’s no surprise that Imperial engineers designed bridges and buildings featuring a range of forms—some of which still stand as a testament to their remarkable technical knowledge.

Interestingly, Roman concrete seems to grow even stronger over time. Modern research indicates that seawater reacts with the concrete, forming new minerals that fill tiny fissures and reinforce the structure instead of corroding it. This phenomenon continues to intrigue engineers and chemists, who see pozzolana as a potential inspiration for creating more sustainable and durable construction materials.

Hence, the enduring nature of Roman concrete symbolizes the practicality and innovation of ancient Roman engineers. Faced with an empire spanning thousands of miles, it was crucial to develop construction methods that could withstand the elements, earthquakes, and even military conflicts. By mastering the use of volcanic ash mixed with lime, stone, and water, the Romans left an impressive legacy—one that still amazes modern observers. This serves as a powerful reminder that the ancient world often boasted solutions that surpass some current technologies.

5. Gladiators: Entertainment, Politics, and Religion

Gladiatorial combat is perhaps one of the best-known—and most discussed—aspects of Roman culture. In modern imagination, these combats, held in arenas like the Colosseum, are often associated with bloodshed and crowds hungry for violence. But the reality is more intricate. Gladiators occupied an ambiguous place in Roman society: while frequently slaves or prisoners of war, some rose to the status of pop icons, drawing huge audiences.

The shows, called munera, originated from Etruscan rites linked to funerary practices. As Rome grew, these ceremonies expanded, turning into large-scale events funded by politicians seeking public favor. Spectators loved the fights, and politicians gained popularity by hosting them. Beyond the gladiators themselves, there were also exotic animals, mythological reenactments, and public executions of criminals. Consequently, the arena became a microcosm of power, violence, spectacle, and, paradoxically, religion.

Politics was evident in these events. Magistrates and aspiring politicians often invested significant sums of money in organizing gladiatorial shows, hoping to gain prestige or reciprocate the public’s support. It was a form of social bargaining, known as panem et circenses (bread and circuses), in which food and entertainment were provided to the populace, keeping them content and less likely to rebel.

A religious dimension was also present. Before the fights, rituals prayed for the gods’ protection or purified the venue. In some cases, death in the arena was interpreted as a ritual sacrifice. This mix of the sacred and the profane demonstrated the Roman belief that violence could serve a divine or collective purpose. Although we may now view these practices as cruel, they were once accepted as normal in that historical context.

The popularity of gladiatorial fights declined as Christianity gained influence, bringing new moral perspectives and value for human life. The emperor Honorius officially banned the games in the early 5th century CE. Even so, the image of the gladiator endures in books, films, and television series, symbolizing both brutality and bravery. These fighters embodied a fascinating duality: marginalized in the social hierarchy, yet idolized in the arena stands.

Rome’s Enduring Legacy

The history of Ancient Rome is so extensive that it’s impossible to cover it all in one text. Nonetheless, these five key facts—Roman baths, roads, sanitation, concrete, and gladiators—offer a revealing glimpse into how this civilization structured its world, leaving lasting impacts that persist to this day.

Examining these facets shows how Roman culture integrated politics, engineering, religion, and urban life. Roman baths highlight the importance placed on hygiene and social gathering; the roads explain how the empire maintained swift communication with far-flung regions; the Cloaca Maxima and related sewage systems reveal a remarkable focus on public health for ancient times; ultra-durable concrete demonstrates the innovation and foresight in long-term building; and gladiatorial contests reflect a more complex side of Roman society—where entertainment intertwined with political propaganda and religious ceremony.

By studying Rome, we see a people who combined practical building solutions with expansive thinking about culture and religion. This balance—albeit not always harmonious—allowed the empire to last for centuries despite internal and external challenges. If many of these practices and inventions still inspire us, it’s because they reveal a unique blend of efficiency, organization, and ambition.

Ultimately, Rome’s legacy didn’t vanish with the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Numerous medieval kingdoms and modern states adopted its symbols, laws, and construction techniques, preserving the millennial fascination. Indeed, we can say that we still walk on Roman roads, drink water from aqueducts they envisioned, and live in cities whose urban-planning principles trace back, in part, to innovations first tested along the Tiber. Thus, understanding Roman civilization is not just a trip into the past, but a key to grasping much of what we consider vital in our contemporary society.