Many topics related to the ethnogenesis of the Slavic peoples continue to generate controversy among historians, linguists, archaeologists, and ethnographers even today. The ancestors of these peoples, the Proto-Slavs, spoke a language that modern science conventionally and unimaginatively called “Proto-Slavic.”
Currently, various theories and research locate the ancestral homeland of the Slavs in specific regions, such as the middle Danube, the lands between the Oder and Vistula rivers, the territories between the Vistula, Dnieper, and Oder rivers, and the Pripyat marshlands.
The Great Migrations and the Bulgarian State
During the period of the great migrations (3rd-7th centuries AD), these Slavic tribes actively came into contact with other nomadic peoples. The Hunnic Empire, led by Attila, occupied all the lands between the Volga and the Danube, reaching as far as the borders of France. The death of Attila in 453 triggered the disintegration of this empire, and with no alternative, the Huns moved eastward.
Around the mid-6th century, the Avar Khaganate emerged, establishing its supremacy over various nomadic tribes inhabiting the southern steppes. This union included Turkic-speaking tribes, such as the Avars, Ugric-speaking tribes, and Mongolic tribes. The Avar Khaganate subdued the Bulgars and Turks from the regions of Azov and the Caspian and advanced toward the Danube. In the early 7th century, they also subdued the Dulebes tribes in the Carpathian region, later attempting to expand into Byzantium. After being defeated by the Byzantines in 626, the khaganate disintegrated.
Around the mid-7th century, the Bulgarian state was formed in the southern steppes. A series of disputes within the Bulgarian elite led part of this people, led by Asparukh, to migrate to the Danube, where they founded the Bulgarian state in 681. Another part of the Bulgars, who spoke a Turkic language, led by Batbayán, founded the Volga Bulgaria in the middle Volga and lower Kama regions.
Also, in the mid-7th century, the Turkic-speaking Khazars founded an independent khanate covering the territories of present-day Dagestan, forming the Khazar Khanate in the northern Caucasus, the lower Volga region, the northern Black Sea, and parts of Crimea. This khanate existed until the mid-10th century.
The Eastern Slavs
During the 7th century, the Slavic world was divided into three groups: the southern Slavs, the western Slavs, and the eastern Slavs. The Eastern Slavs occupied territories in Eastern Europe, covering an area extending from Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega in the north to the middle basin of the Dnieper River and the mouths of the Prut, Dniester, and Southern Bug rivers in the south; from the slopes of the Carpathians in the west to the confluence of the Volga with the Oka and the upper Don in the east.
The collection of chronicles from the ancient Russian state, called the Primary Chronicle or Nestor’s Chronicle, provides a faithful account of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs. Considered a masterpiece of literature, it is believed to have been written by a monk named Nestor at the Kiev Pechersk Lavra (Monastery of the Caves) in the early 12th century.
In the monk’s chronicles, the origins of the ancient Russian state and its genesis are examined. Nestor places the history of the Eastern Slavs within the broader historical context and explains that, from the 7th century onward, due to the aggression of nomadic tribes, the Eastern Slavs intensified their migrations to new territories. This process, along with economic development, strengthened the bonds between tribes, a crucial factor in the formation of tribal alliances. The formation of tribal unions among the Eastern Slavs paved the way for the disintegration of the tribal system.
The names adopted by most tribal unions were not associated with their origins but with the areas where they settled. For example, in the middle course of the Dnieper River, in the fields (polia in Russian), lived the Polians; in the Pripyat River basin, where there were forests and swampy zones, lived the Drevlians (from drevo, ‘tree’, or derevo, ‘wood’) and the Dregoviches (from dirigov, ‘swamp’).
In the upper reaches of the Dnieper, the Radimiches settled, while the Kriviches occupied the regions of the Dvina and Dnieper rivers, and the Polochans inhabited the middle course of the Dvina and the confluence of the Palata River. The Ilmen Slavs or Slovenes lived around Lake Ilmen, and the Vyatichi settled in the Oka River basin.
The information presented in the Primary Chronicle about the resettlement of the Eastern Slavs has been confirmed by numerous archaeological discoveries, including ornamental objects, particularly the temporal rings typical of each tribal union.
The Finno-Baltic tribes inhabited territories adjacent to the Slavic tribal unions, which placed them under constant threat. This Slavic intimidation is mentioned in the Primary Chronicle. In addition to the Baltic and Finnish peoples, the Rus people were also subject to this pressure.
The contradictions between written sources and archaeological evidence continue to generate debates among archaeologists and historians.
The Ethnonym “Rus”
Some researchers believe that the name “Rus” originates from the Slavic tribal union established along the Ros River, a tributary of the Dnieper, and that this ethnonym, later spread across the steppes, eventually became a general term for all Slavs.
Other scholars argue that the ethnonym “Rus” has a Nordic origin, derived from the Finnish word ruotsi (‘rowers’). According to this theory, the term initially referred to the Varangians and Normans from Denmark and Norway and later came to designate the squadron of the Varangian prince Oleg.
The name of this squadron eventually became the name of the entire state, Kievan Rus, which was formed in the lands of the Eastern Slavs. Some historians believe that the ethnonym “Rus” originated from the Slavs of the southern Baltic coast and the island of Rügen (Rugia).
Based on the analysis of written sources and, most importantly, archaeological evidence, historian V.V. Sedov proposed the existence of the Rus Khaganate, which would have occupied the lands between the Don and Dnieper rivers. According to this theory, its origin dates back to the union of agricultural peoples formed by the Scythians and Sarmatians. Thus, “Rus” was originally a well-known non-Slavic ethnonym.
The Belief System of the Eastern Slavs
Due to their complete dependence on natural forces, these peoples practiced paganism between the 4th and 9th centuries. In this belief system, the Eastern Slavs worshiped a vast pantheon of deities.
The origin of paganism dates back to antiquity and underwent constant evolution, resulting in the multiplicity of gods in Eastern Slavic mythology. The god Yarilo embodied spring, while Kupala represented the sun at the summer solstice. Veles was the god of shepherds and was also associated with the earth, forests, waters, cattle, and fertility.
The Slavic mythological world consisted of benevolent deities and malevolent spirits, locked in eternal conflict. Among the malevolent spirits were demons, vampires, and werewolves.
To protect themselves from these entities, the Slavs resorted to various spells, amulets, and talismans. On the other hand, benevolent spirits fought against evil forces, protecting life, peace, and human activities.
Agriculture
The fact that Slavic pagan festivities were closely linked to agriculture demonstrates that these peoples lived primarily an agrarian life. Their main crops included cereals such as rye, wheat, barley, and millet, as well as vegetables like turnips, beets, radishes, and cabbage. In addition to farming, they also engaged in livestock raising, hunting, fishing, and beekeeping.
Between the 7th and 8th centuries, the plow-based system gradually replaced the slash-and-burn method.
Both in the south and north, iron processing techniques improved, leading to significant technological advancements in agricultural tools. As a result, agriculture became the main economic activity of the Eastern Slavs.
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